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Abstract

The human species faces crises of critical proportions. Excessive population, global warming, and the anticipated descent from peak fossil-fuel extraction promise to change our future in far-reaching ways. Operant conditioning prepares the individual for a world similar to the selecting past, but our world is changing more rapidly than our adaptation. As individuals, we cannot make substantial changes in the world at large because we do not control enough reinforcers, but we can turn to the sources of our personal behavior and manipulate them. We will need help. Better organized social networks and the self-management techniques they support can promote immediate changes in consumption at home, work, and moving about in our personal worlds. Surprisingly, consuming less can lead to more satisfying and happier lives, but a better understanding of reinforcement contingencies is necessary. We can recover the strengthening effects of personal daily accomplishments that are eroded when conditioned generalized reinforcers intervene. When we get our own personal lives in order we can reduce our carbon footprints, restore the connections between our behavior and its strengthening effects, and become models worthy of imitation.

In the recent special issue of The Behavior Analyst dedicated to the human response to climate change, L. G. Thompson (2010) described a serious developing problem. He concluded that warming cannot be attributed to typical cycles, as critics disclaiming human causes assert. Carbon dioxide is now present in the atmosphere at a level not seen in 800,000 years, and the change in level appears to be accelerating, with the possibility of abrupt massive climate changes. Thompson concluded that prevention of climate change is no longer possible, as the change has already begun.

The remaining contributions to the special issue described and recommended solutions coming from behavior analysis (Heward & Chance, 2010; Keller, 1991/2010; Layng, 2010; Malott, 2010; Neuringer & Oleson, 2010; Nevin, 2010; Pritchard, 2010; Twyman, 2010). Chance and Heward (2010) summarized the contributions of the special issue with further suggestions, while noting that earlier contributors cited by Tuso and Geller (1976) were active in previous years. An implication of the papers that focused on global warming is that the human species must cut back on fossil fuel consumption, not simply because consumption results in global warming and weather disruption, but because we are running out of fossil fuels, which is an issue that deserves further emphasis.

CHANGING ENERGY SOURCES

Many authors during the past decade have described aspects of the two looming global problems of climate change and the progressive decline in available fossil fuels (e.g., Heinberg 2003, 2004, 2007, 2009, 2011; Heinberg & Lerch, 2010; Homer-Dixon & Garrison, 2009; Hopkins, 2008; Kunstler, 2005; Leeb, 2006; Rubin, 2009; Stein, 2008). These authors extensively reference scientific geological sources of data that support their summaries and suggestions for action. The series of papers contained in the recently published The Post Carbon Reader (Heinberg & Lerch, 2010) broadly and comprehensively summarizes our situation, as does the recent book The End of Growth (Heinberg, 2011). In addition, Grant (2007, 2010) has contributed a penetrating behavioral analysis of what he calls our pending “cultural crisis.”

It is widely believed that technology will solve predicted energy problems, a belief that is nurtured by our media as well as governmental leaders. Prominent among the proposed alternative energy solutions are solar, wind, tidal, hydroelectric, geothermal, and even atomic fusion. But there are problems with nearly all alternative energy sources (Fridley, 2010). They still account for a small portion of overall world energy consumption. Many are not yet well developed, and all require the infusion (embodiment) of energy in the technologies themselves. It takes energy to develop technology and convert to new energy sources. The capacity of alternatives to fossil fuel for supporting our current consuming lifestyles is questionable at best, partly because the embodied energy required in the development and production of new technologies will come out of dwindling fossil fuel sources, a consideration not adequately addressed in most optimistic predictions of alternative energy sources. But technological improvements must occur quickly, and the world must vigorously reduce its energy consumption now if we are to avoid widespread painful economic and social consequences in the future.

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THE CONSUMPTION TRAP

Our personal lives are not necessarily happier because we consume more. Many people were productive and happy before industrialization and the rapid exploitation of fossil fuels. When one found rewarding work, access to healthy food, a modicum of financial security, and time for relaxation, personal happiness was achieved without excessive consumption of nonrenewable natural resources. The emotional by-products called “happiness” and “satisfaction” arise from accomplishment, not necessarily acquisition (Skinner, 1987b). Specialization of labor and its efficiency led to wealth, leisure, and further technological development. However, these so-called advances came with a corresponding deterioration in the quality of life. Pursuit of the respondent by-products called “pleasurable feelings” increasingly replaced the by-products of operant strengthening (sometimes called “satisfaction”).¹ In this process, daily personal accomplishment of even the most routine and trivial tasks was increasingly replaced by technology. Energetic behavior was accomplished by mechanical devices, and large-muscle work declined to the point that we now contrive exercise at the gym. Specialization of labor led to efficiencies, but at a cost of boring repetition (i.e., long response ratios). As a result, pleasing consequences eclipsed strengthening ones.

People progressively moved from physically energetic behavior with great daily variety (e.g., the manual activities such as cleaning, maintaining the household, raising one's own children, preparing food from unprocessed ingredients, walking to locations) to the 40-hr plus workweek doing largely the same kind of things. Machines took over the physical labors of daily life to the extent that people simply pushed buttons. But in exerting less physical effort, they lost the satisfaction that comes with producing immediate and tangible accomplishments at nearly every turn of the day (i.e., short response ratios). As a result they have become increasingly bored with the repetition in their work, spending what leisure time they have left passively observing the serious lives of others in drama, competitive struggles, comedy, gambling, or using drugs. Very little of what many people now do in their leisure time makes any significant contribution to the strength of the culture, and many of these activities consume large amounts of fossil energy.

Why people are not happy in the Western world cannot be completely summarized as a problem of short and long ratio requirements, or the presence of aversive control (Sidman, 1989). Contingencies are complicated. A great deal of the problem comes from the destruction of the direct and natural relations between what people do in their daily lives and the important consequences of their behavior. They now work for the generalized conditioned reinforcers of praise (prestige) and money, neither of which is always clearly nor necessarily related to other important consequences, especially remote consequences for our species. As noted, affluence with its specialization has weakened the satisfaction that comes from producing simple and immediate physical changes in one's environment.

Energy consumption accompanies affluence, but affluence for the majority of people in the world may now be on the decline. The end of worldwide economic growth, possibly precipitated in advance by the derivatives debacle, is now being predicted (Heinberg, 2011) and tied to the declining availability of fossil fuels. But, surprisingly, it is quite possible that a reduction in affluence and energy consumption may foster a return to happier, more productive, lives. We may return to simpler patterns of living with greater daily variety of shorter (and, yes, manual) ratios. These small immediately contingent consequences may replace the search for happiness through activities that are simply pleasing. A simplified life may prove to be a far happier life than the one experienced in the consumption trap, as Thoreau argued.

RETURN TO A MORE SATISFYING LIFE

Consuming less can become healthier, personally satisfying, and interesting, but the transition to it will take preparation. Here, I suggest specific actions. To consume less we need to deliberately reorganize our current daily living patterns, possibly even changing the work we do and moving to a different location. We can expand our ability to participate in the production and processing of what we eat, for example. We can redesign the places in which we live and work, walking or cycling when possible. We can expand our ability to produce art, music, and literature, as well as consume it. We can explore our world with science for pragmatic and personal reasons rather than salary increases. Making these improvements can significantly reduce energy consumption, but the process will require design. Such improvements are accomplished in successive approximations; fortunately, behavior analysts are especially prepared for the task. We can do this collectively and individually.

New group living arrangements with lower consuming cooperative and experimental lifestyles such as those envisioned by Skinner in Walden Two (1948), Kinkade (1973), and Comunidad Los Horcones (Los Horcones, 1989, 1991) offer the promise of the reduction of significant fossil energy consumption, but to date successes in planned communities have been modest and have not been widely duplicated. Promoting the movement to a sustainable lifestyle (Grant, 2010) (i.e., one that can be supported with renewable energy while maintaining a livable steady-state environment for those in the future) will need to be accomplished in stages. Nevin (2005) has pointed to coordinated group action. Local groups can team up to get their communities to invest in windmills, for example. A number of studies have reported success in the formation of advocacy groups and community action (e.g., Altus, Welsh, & Miller, 1991; Altus, Welsh, Miller, & Merrill, 1993; Briscoe, Hoffman, & Bailey, 1975; Fawcett, 1991; Fawcett, Miller, & Braukmann, 1977; Welsh, Miller, & Altus, 1994). Some have focused on the crucial importance of the maintenance of contingencies after they have first been implemented.

A major difficulty is that all group efforts run into the problem of complex and conflicting established reinforcers for their members, an issue examined by Glenn (1991, 2004). Efforts to reform are confronted with strong tendencies to behave in established ways. Nevin (1995, 1996, 2005), Nevin and Grace (2000), and Nevin, Mandell, and Atak (1983) have examined the processes metaphorically termed behavioral momentum, which refers to the persistence of behavior and its relation to the rate of reinforcement in the context. What is termed temporal (or delayed) discounting (Critchfield & Kollins, 2001) is also relevant. People tend to behave in ways that produce immediate but small consequences rather than ways that produce large but delayed consequences. They watch television rather than read, go to a restaurant rather than prepare the meal at home, and take drugs (including alcohol) rather than enjoy the by-products of artistic production (e.g., playing and composing music, or doing craft work). In summary, our cultural contingencies now favor behaviors that produce immediate small consequences at the expense of alternative behaviors that produce delayed but larger consequences (Grant, 2007). Our financial system makes it easy for corporations to profit from the consumption trap. Further, the advanced state of the physical sciences supports the development of products that make life easier in small but immediate ways. Unfortunately, the relatively less advanced state of the behavioral sciences provides little support for the development of interventions that help make life more rewarding in large but delayed ways. Why consuming behavior persists even when individuals are presented with opposing facts and alternative options is a complex issue, and future research will, no doubt, isolate controlling variables. Unfortunately, as L. G. Thompson (2010) and Heinberg (2011) have noted, time is not on our side.

The thrust of the present paper is that effective steps toward a lifestyle of reduced consumption can be taken without wrestling with politics, struggling to change behavior of others that is supported by contingencies out of reach, and enduring the dilution of personal effect that results from the participation in social movements. Instead, a great deal can be done at the level of the individual in his or her personal life and, as we shall see, can be begun immediately. If the problem is the absence of knowing what to do, we can target that personal energy-conscious behavior, prompt it, sharpen the contingencies that support it, and monitor its progress through time. This can be accomplished by the behavior analyst (or anyone else) at home when contingency-management skills are applied to one's own behavior in a manner similar to controlling the behavior of another person. All of this can occur without substantial group coordination, but only if the probability of doing it is already high enough, prompting is skillfully employed, and changes in targeted performance are magnified with methods of monitoring progress. Suggestions for such personal self-management are to follow; however, the presence of supporting social contingencies that instruct, prompt, and maintain behavior are often necessary. I shall suggest that, when necessary, such additional contingencies can be brought to bear by incorporating the local community, increasingly through the use of the Internet. We may do this in small measures, by easy initial steps as Nevin (2005) and Mace et al. (1988) have suggested, or perhaps by totally changing the physical environment in which we live. Lehman and Geller (2004) summarized variously effective ways to initiate community action, and what is to follow will turn to the actions of individuals in their personal lives drawing from these techniques.

IMMEDIATE ACTION: THE DAILY STARTING POINT

Most of us have a regular time and place devoted to reading. We can raise the probability of responding to rising energy costs by surrounding our reading area with sources of scientifically derived data about worldwide trends. S. C. Thompson and Stoutmeyer (1991) found that many home residents conserved if they received instruction about long-term consequences and personal efficacy education. Arranging magazines, books, and so on in a sequence keeps prompts in sight. Science News, for example, comes in a printed version and is available on the Web. Web feeds can also place articles regularly on one's reading docket. Winett, Leckliter, Chinn, and Stahl (1984) reported that video presentation of conservation behaviors significantly decreased residential energy use, for example. Keeping prompts in front of us is critical. Out of sight, out of behavior.

The effectiveness of prompting is well documented in behavior-analytic literature (e.g., Jacobs, Bailey, & Crews, 1984; Newkirk, Feldman, Bickett, Gipson, & Lutzker, 1976; Tuso & Geller, 1976; Winett & Neale, 1981). Many successful strategies can be readily applied to self-management.² Transporting notes from the reading area to other points in our path raises the probability of action at those points when one has done so successfully in the past. Such notes are especially helpful when we are preoccupied with other matters, as is often the case in professional lives; however, their use requires the recognition of the external environment as a controlling source. It is important to begin further action as soon after writing a note as possible to capture the strength of the current probability. Where do we place notes or relevant objects? Knowing oneself is important. To have an effect, discriminative stimuli ought to appear at critical physical or temporal points in our future path. Such points may be the bathroom mirror, the vehicle dash, doors, and yes, even certain places on the floor. They should appear at just the point in time and place that they capture the highest current probability of the behavior and combine with other variables. A watch with a repeating timer can prompt behavior at just the right time. Geller, Winett, and Everett (1982) identified several conditions under which prompting strategies are most effective. They noted that prompts work best when the target behavior is relatively easy to perform and clearly defined, and when the message is displayed in close proximity to the place where the target behavior can be performed. Winett (1978) also found that simple prompting strategies are effective at increasing energy-conserving behaviors.³

If you do not measure behavior, you are less likely to change it. Monitoring, feedback, and incentives have been shown to support changes in energy use in a wide variety of settings (e.g., Abrahamse, Steg, Vlek, & Rothengatter, 2005; Bekker et al., 2010; Boyce & Geller, 2001; Kohlenberg, Phillips, & Proctor, 1976; Luyben, 1980; McMakin, Malone, & Lundgren, 2002; Palmer, Lloyd, & Lloyd, 1977; Seaver & Patterson, 1976; Slavin, Wodarski, & Blackburn, 1981; Winett et al., 1982). Graphs are common in behavior analysis because conversion of measured behavior to graphic form amplifies changes and, in our case, can make even the sight of small improvements in energy consumption reinforcing. It is not widely understood that many electrical devices consume power even when turned off. A DVR, television, and audio system are good examples. (All devices that employ a transformer at the point at which they are plugged in are suspect.) A meter that indicates electricity consumption is especially helpful for identifying sources. Electronic devices are now available to do both the measurement and cumulative usage display automatically at a central location. Action can be taken by using a power strip devoted to these energy users that gangs them together. One must, of course, remember to turn the power strip off and on if it is not clock-operated (another reason for notes and daily checklists placed at critical points in one's path). Graphs of daily, weekly, or monthly electricity consumption kept on the refrigerator door encourage social contingencies that arise from onlookers such as family members, companions, and visitors. A clearly visible, up-to-date graph invites conversation about electricity use and comparison with what other households may be accomplishing. Changes in the direction of data invite commentary from others about novel conservation efforts and possibly even some friendly competition.

Unfortunately, advances in technology have now become conditioned reinforcers without regard to their outcomes. We love gadgets. But we are paying a high energy price for these small gains. Are power windows really necessary? Does the air-conditioning flow need to adjust automatically when a person sits in a given area of the vehicle? Does the seat really need to be heated? Is it a significant safety advantage when headlights move in concert with the steering wheel? Do we need text messages and a television in the car?

Heating water consumes significant electricity, and small changes in consumption can make big differences. Reminding ourselves with cues to take low-flow and more efficient showers rather than baths saves both energy and water. It is unfortunate that washing dishes by hand has come to be “old fashioned.” The automatic dishwasher does not do the entire kitchen cleanup, and emptying it is a larger ratio of behavior compared to putting dishes away as they are cleaned. Furthermore, one person washing while another dries is a social situation facilitating one-on-one discussion (possibly with one's child). A little social engineering can reduce or eliminate the use of an automatic dishwasher and even a clothes dryer.

FOOD ENERGY

Casual observation suggests that many grocery store shoppers visit the delicatessen section for major food purchases. This may be an indication of hurried lifestyles, poor understanding of nutrition, or simply the lack of cooking skill. We do not like to do things we have not learned to do well. As a result, the typical supermarket basket contains many prepared foods that raise both nutritional and energy consumption issues (Bomford, 2010). Preprocessing requires more energy. Most supermarket items have traveled a long distance (Pimentel & Pimentel, 2008). In contrast, buying locally produced foods reduces transportation costs. Cooking from basic ingredients can avoid consumption of excessive salt, fats, sugar, preservation additives, and possibly genetically engineered plants. When we buy basic staple ingredients such as flour, rice, beans, potatoes, and so on, we can buy in bulk without the excessive packaging now so much a part of processed foods (inspect the contents of your kitchen wastebasket). Reusable containers and bags require thinking ahead (e.g., notes in the right places), but their use quickly becomes routine. Eating lower in the food chain saves a great deal of energy, because mass production of animal products consumes prodigious amounts of energy and water as well as destroying local environments and raising personal health concerns. A shopping list with a bold heading on it saying “purchase locally grown foods and eat lower on the food chain” can be a well-placed discriminated stimulus. Many years ago, behavior analysts applied their research skills to what people purchase at the store and what they select at cafeterias. For example, Dubbert, Johnson, Schlundt, and Montague (1984) found that labeling increased the probability of certain food selections, and Winett, Kramer, Walker, Malone, and Lane (1988) found that modeling-feedback and participant-modeling procedures were most effective in reducing fat consumption and expenditures. It is unfortunate that researchers have not continued to vigorously develop methods of altering what we eat. The field is ripe for inventive behavior-analytic research, research that comes with the tighter scrutiny of direct observation of targeted behavior rather than questionnaires.

GROWING MORE OF WHAT ONE EATS

Urbanization has led to specialization in food production. Cheap energy enabled transportation of food over long distances. Efficiencies of production equipment size, cheap fuel, and petroleum-based fertilizer made raising food at home uneconomical. Home gardening became obsolete. But with rising food costs, we are beginning to see its revival. Unfortunately, many people no longer have the skills of vegetable gardening and instead mow lawns that could be gardens. Maintaining a garden, possibly sown with heirloom seeds (those that promote expanded gene pools), moves in the direction of sustainability, resiliency, and reduction in the consumption of petroleum-based energy. A small carefully managed garden (perhaps containing a greenhouse) can produce a continuing array of vegetables. One's salad can come from 50 steps away rather than thousands of miles. The food tastes better because most supermarket vegetables called “fresh” have been picked many days earlier and have been grown in soil that contains petroleum-based fertilizers and pesticides and that is slowly depleting each year because it is not being enriched organically.

It is unfortunate that basic food preparation has gone out of style in many homes. Cooking ceases to be a chore when it becomes an art, as the followers of Julia Child know. Food preparation does not need to be elaborate, but knowledge is required. When skillfully done, cooking directly reinforces the cook's behavior. So powerful are these reinforcers that the cook may arrive at the table having sampled many “appetizers” while in the kitchen. Home-cooked food better conforms to personal tastes. Recipes of greater variety are possible. Such homely efforts as canning and freezing enable the preservation of locally grown food when it is in season. These efforts are time consuming, and one must have the equipment, but a return to this type of food preservation yields better knowledge of the content of what one is eating.⁴ Because there are direct relations between each link in the behavioral chains involved in cooking and the reinforcing products, a source of daily satisfaction of tangible accomplishment automatically happens. One looks forward to preparing a dish. At the same time, fossil energy consumption is reduced. Simply consuming locally raised food that is in season is a step in the direction of conservation and supports local agriculture. If we cannot prepare local foods from scratch, we can reinforce the activity of others who can when we purchase theirs. We can ask restaurants to note the locally grown foods on their menus.

REPAIRING THINGS

Labor has become so expensive that repairing things or replacing parts may not currently make economic sense. But repairing does make ecological sense, and it will make greater economic sense as energy becomes more precious. We now discard defective things rather than fix them (e.g., clothing). We put off tasks like replacing a high water consumption toilet or showerhead, partly because we are busy with other matters, but often because we do not know how to do the tasks ourselves. Repairing a dripping faucet, soldering a failing copper pipe, or even correcting a leaking roof may not be difficult. One simply has to know what to do and have the appropriate implements at hand.

Years ago, the public school curriculum contained manual arts, such as home economics, wood, metal, and general shop classes. The college preparatory curriculum replaced these “blue collar” classes with courses that establish verbal behavior that is often distantly related to practical matters. The disappearance of instruction about mechanical processes has left many people without even an elementary understanding about how many things work. Now, it is probably the case that the average house, condominium, or apartment contains precious little in the form of tools, such as an array of wrenches, screwdrivers, clamps, chisels, drills, bits, saws, a tool bench, a vice, a soldering iron, and drawers containing various sizes of nails and screws. It is likely that most homes no longer have a sewing machine or a meter for testing electrical current. Some may lack a powerful electric food mixer or processor with useful attachments. The result is the necessity of buying manufactured, prepared, and replacement items as well as the dependence on service people. A deep and abiding satisfaction can come from repairing something oneself.

We can supply additional reinforcement for fixing things ourselves by quantifying and even graphing what is going into our trash (possibly using a bathroom scale while holding a trash can or bag). Recycling plastics, glass, and metal is effortful, but most materials need not go into the landfill. Table scraps and some kinds of paper can be shredded and buried in the garden or composted in an easily constructed bin. In this way, organic fertilizer and soil amendments can be produced on the home premises, avoiding the necessity of purchasing them. We can buy appliances with an eye to their repairability and simplicity of function, while avoiding unnecessary gadgets. When anything fails in our home we then have a better chance of making routine repairs (possibly with the help of tutorials now readily available on the Internet). A copy of When Technology Fails (Stein, 2008) is a particularly valuable household resource. Energy use declines as our trash containers become lighter.

GETTING OFF THE ROAD

We can each drive our personal vehicles less, and walk and bicycle more. We can calculate the miles we travel to typical locations, convert the calculations into costs per mile to each location, and then place a note with the cost of each trip on our dashboard (perhaps above where we insert the ignition key). Graphs of weekly accumulated travel miles can be posted on the refrigerator or the bathroom mirror. Obtaining a behavioral commitment has been a component of many successful behavior-based interventions (e.g., Bachman & Katzev, 1982; Burn & Oskamp, 1986; Geller & Lehman, 1991). Pardini and Katzev (1983–1984) found that groups asked to make verbal or written commitments showed significantly higher rates of newspaper recycling than controls did. DeLeon and Fuqua (1995) demonstrated that combining a public commitment to recycle paper (participants' names were published in a local newspaper) with feedback resulted in a 40% increase in the weight of recycled paper for residents of an apartment complex. Werner et al. (1995) found that a written commitment to participate in a curbside recycling program resulted in greater rates of participation than informational brochures or face-to-face contact without written commitment. We can individually do this on the Internet, as Malott (2010) has suggested. Such public posting invites scrutiny and brings reinforcing social contingencies to bear. The field is wide open for enterprising Web developers and researchers with skills in behavior analysis.

Most of us resist public transportation even when it is available, because it is often inconvenient and we ride in the company of strangers. But we can get over this.⁵ Simply walking for errands or leisure activities brings one back into contact with the world of natural things and reduces the necessity of contrived physical effort on an exercise machine. The important thing is to exert effort, to enjoy oneself in the process, and to raise one's heart rate for sustained periods of time frequently and regularly each week. This happens automatically when we walk rather than ride.

COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIPS

We need not do all our efforts alone, nor can we. Energy conservation can be supplemented with networking and social interdependency. Strengthening face-to-face relationships with those in our neighborhood fosters resiliency when troublesome things like power outages, breakdowns, or shortages occur. Networking with neighbors sets the stage for trading items and services. Energy conservation can be contagious, and networking with neighbors can supply needed reinforcers. Through closer associations, we become especially sensitive to the progress our neighbors are making and we can profit from it.

Participation in art, literature, music, and exploration of our world can be more reinforcing when done with others. We can deliberately associate with people who play musical instruments or sing. We can join a local musical group that simply gets together to “jam.” The social consequences themselves can be worth the effort, and energy consumption may be trivial when little travel is required. Artistic and nature-loving cultures are particularly supportive of newcomers. Participatory sports contribute to our health when they are not overly competitive and are age appropriate.

BIGGER STEPS

Since 1950, the average size of new single-family houses in the United States has more than doubled, even as the average family size has steadily shrunk (Wilson & Boehland, 2005). Do we really need rooms that we rarely use, large walk-in closets filled with clothing we rarely wear, and large bathrooms with energy-consuming spas? Existing housing essentially ignores the costs of heating and air conditioning because they have been so low. A big step is to design and move into a smaller energy-efficient home. The truly “solar” home depends on the prevailing climate in its area. Minimizing effects of the sun's heating energy in the summer and maximizing it in the winter requires careful design, but it can make dramatic changes in energy consumption. A solar home's shape and positioning may be unconventional, but the energy savings can be remarkable. Personally accomplishing much of its construction and finish work can be a particularly satisfying experience, because one then enjoys the consequences every day. Locating one's home close to current or future mass transit sites is important.

ONE'S PROFESSION

Changes in the world energy picture warrant a reanalysis of our vocations. The ethics of behavior analysis extend to the long-range cultural consequences of what we do in our occupations. However, our commitment to what we do at work has everything to do with past contingencies. We remain prisoners of our past and present contingencies without help. We are committed to where the money has been and still is (for the moment). We are likely to have climbed professional ladders, live in homes, and work in locations without consideration of the now predicted changes in available resources (Heinberg, 2011). In many cases, we find ourselves denying that trouble is ahead by insisting that technology will bail us out. But the daily news brings nagging questions. Will the purchasing power of our salaries decline? Will the distance we travel to work increasingly squeeze our personal budgets? Will the strength of institutions that support us decline when the world culture is forced to consume less energy? Can we depend on the promises of private institutions and the government for our retirement income? How much can we count on current medical care benefits? All of these issues suggest that denial may not be productive and that, instead, careful planning and engaging in occupations that increase in value as energy costs rise are appropriate behaviors.

The future is likely to favor occupations that increase human performance efficiency, encourage natural resource conservation, promote local food production, and teach renewable agricultural practices on smaller scales. Occupations that develop habitat renovation, teach personal handicrafts, and teach how to analyze energy efficiency will support the shift to lower consumption. Those occupations that teach personal artistic performance will make life more satisfying in a world that consumes less energy. Community social engineers will increasingly be in demand because the predicted cultural crisis will involve changes in personal contingencies that will be disruptive. Because it is likely that government grants as well as social programs such as Medicare and Medicaid will be curtailed, local communities and family members will need to develop support networks that replace declining governmental support. Education and care for the elderly and other individuals with special needs will require changes in local social contingencies. The common thread in all of this is the need for effective behavior management and instruction. Fortunately for us, this has always been a focus of behavior analysis. But, as has been pointed out, many of us have become so specialized in what we do that we lack practical skills in many areas. This has reduced our resiliency, that is, the rapidity with which we can adapt to the changing energy picture. It is the time for each of us to develop a broader repertoire of vocations in which we apply our behavior-analytic technical skills.

RECOVERING THE BEAUTIFUL AND ABUNDANT LIFE

What I have said here will be unsettling to many because it challenges our accustomed reinforcers. A change to different patterns of behavior will be difficult and disruptive. As we have seen, it is unlikely that we can depend on the cornucopia of technological advances to save us from the beginning decline in fossil fuels. As energy supplies become more expensive and unavailable, we will unavoidably return to lifestyles that were more common in the early and middle 20th century. But I am not suggesting that we are going backward, because I believe we have not always advanced. The conveniences of technology have come at a cost in energy and the satisfaction of accomplishment, in other words, alienation from ultimate consequences. In addition, our standard of consumption (not “standard of living”) requires longer hours of working at our primary occupations. We find ourselves prisoners of contingencies that have evolved in our lives. Changing our behavior will require approximations toward goals. Sometimes the steps will be small but they can be progressive, and we do not need to wait for others to begin taking these steps.

Many of us now live overcommitted and excessively busy lives. We are sometimes stressed and exhausted when we arrive at home after a day of work that does not prepare us to make the changes in our personal lives that I have suggested. But this is part of the problem to be solved. I believe behavior analysts are better prepared to make systematic and progressive changes. We understand that we do not do this by an act of will. We accomplish it by creating a personal daily environment that provides prompts for behavior that must be embedded within contingencies with relatively immediate, powerful reinforcers.

To change our behavior, we change the contingencies, but the “we” who are to do the changing are not originating agents (Baum, 1995; Skinner, 1971). We do not lift ourselves by our bootstraps. We all have standing probabilities of action, and they are often well managed by our controlling repertoires. But, in turn, these repertories are created, maintained, and altered by others in our culture (Skinner, 1953). The individual does not “act on his own” in his personal life for long without supporting contingencies from others. Behavior analysis is an especially promising field because it understands this problem and has a powerful research technology to address it. Actions by the community of others who are under the control of predictions of our energy future can provide the necessary reinforcement for actions of individuals in their personal lives (Glenn, 2004). The task of developing behavioral technologies that reach into the most personal lives of behavior analysts is not an easy one, because scientific rigor requires independent verification of procedures and effects. Reducing the consumption of nonrenewable resources is a fertile field for behavior-analytic research, and there is a growing urgency for action if predictions about peak oil and coal are correct. Our field has evolved at a critical moment in the evolution of cultures, perhaps in the nick of time.

A PERSONAL NOTE

I had my first epiphany while reading Walden Two (Skinner, 1948) in the fall of 1966, when it dawned on me that I did not need to wait for a better life to happen; it could be designed using a science of behavior (Skinner, 1987a, 1987c). My professional and personal life became dedicated to that aim. Several years ago, after retiring from university instruction, I had another epiphany. This one was a better understanding of the serious circumstances that now face humanity.

I still believe that we, as behavior analysts, can be the saviors of the world because we are the happy few who understand that behavior does not begin inside us. We also understand that the future predicted by science can have an effect on us only through the contingencies brought to bear by a culture that affects us (Glenn, 2004; Skinner, 1971, 1987b). As I have noted, such a culture can do this by contriving contingencies, many of them supporting self-management. Many solutions will come from contingencies in our personal environments, which are by their nature less accessible to scientific objective scrutiny and invite behavioral researchers with that special challenge. But we cannot wait for miracles or for leaders to show us the way, because our leaders are themselves followers who cling to a conception of human behavior that appeals to an origin inside people and to the illusion of perpetual economic growth. They appeal to the wrong source for change. It is our personal environment that must be changed.

I am inclined to agree with Frazier in Walden Two. Frazier argued that we cannot change the world through world, national, and even state politics. Such “solutions” would likely be the averaging out of the groups seeking power and the human propensity to work for immediate personal welfare. I have, personally, given up trying to change a larger world, one I believe I am essentially powerless to do anything about. But I also believe that we can make a difference when in the presence of others who are in the process of changing and whose standing probabilities of behavior are at the threshold of behaving in more sustainable ways. To do this, we need not wait, nor simply call for others to do something. We can apply our technology to ourselves and model better management of our personal environments. This is where dramatic change is possible because more of the required variables are available.

I am here suggesting that we start at home first. Many of us have powerful controlling repertoires, ones that are integrated with much of our own behavior. Indeed, such repertoires have played a significant role in the fact that we are behavior analysts, and that is why I have written this paper. Making notes and other cues for personal action is part of our personal repertoires. These repertoires can be extended more earnestly to changing energy consumption while improving the quality of daily life.

My hope is that these words may tip the balance toward behaviors the reader is already inclined to do, some of them more vigorously enlisting the network of other behavior analysts via the Internet. Advice is often a weak form of behavior management, because its power depends on the history of the listener or reader. Behavior analysts need supporting contingences, and these necessarily come from contact with others. We cannot change the world much by simply modeling for the relatively few neighbors in our communities. I have proposed that stimulus control will play a key role, but differential reinforcement gives prior stimuli their power. Through control of the setting conditions of our moment-to-moment personal environments and interlocking them with contingencies maintained by a community of supporters, striking changes in our personal rates of consumption can happen. In doing so, we can also live more happily while consuming a great deal less. We can achieve a new order in our own lives rather than being swept up in the current deteriorating situation. We can experience much of “the good life” of Walden Two in our own spaces. With local contingencies that support our own direct contact with the world of things, we can better influence the broader culture by setting an example and contributing to this sustaining culture.

The great challenge for behavior analysts is the development of these interlocking local contingencies for personal behavior, contingencies that prepare us for a world that promises to be greatly different from our selecting past. Operant selection prepares the individual only for a future that resembles the past, and this is also true for the culture of behavior analysis. If it is to survive, our culture will focus on efforts that foster behavior that is better aligned with a world now predicted by science. As I have said, we can begin at home. Our personal behavior can then exploit any tendency of others to imitate. As Gandhi said, “We must be the change we wish to see in the world.”

Acknowledgments

I thank Debbie Altus, Hank Pennypacker, Keith Miller, John Nevin, and Hank Schlinger for their helpful contributions to this paper.

Footnotes

¹We cannot trust feelings themselves as a guide to those contingencies that have desirable strengthening of behavior because the referents for feelings are not yet subject to an objective scientific analysis. In the present discussion, pleasing versus strengthening is a rough vernacular distinction between the by-products of reinforcement contingencies. The former term emphasizes respondent by-products; the latter emphasizes the future utility of operant behavior.

²The “self” in so-called self-control can be described as interlocking connections between a controlling repertoire and a repertoire to be controlled. As such, the “self” in self-control is not an originating agent. It has social origins and requires supplementation from the social environment.

The game the documentary sharebeast free download programs. ³Self-management tends to be weak behavior because the consequences of emitting it are often delayed or uncertain, and stimulus control of self-instruction rapidly loses strength (e.g., we fail to respond to our notes). In addition, the effort of emitting responses in the controlling repertoire competes with other behaviors that produce more immediate or certain consequences (i.e., writing notes or generating cues diverts effort from immediately reinforcing activity). Adding a contrived consequence (a “reason”) for the controlling behavior must lead to reinforcement strong enough to maintain the self-management contingency. I am assuming that readers of this paper have substantial controlling repertoires and that these repertoires are more likely to be evoked by my analysis than readers not exposed to a science of behavior.

⁴At the moment, many people lack both the components of these chains of behavior and the linkage between elements that arises from experience. The solution, of course, is to seek advice via media and to imitate the successful behavior of those who have fully developed repertoires. Seeking such advice and instruction may be more likely when one understands that the source of the problem is not personal failing but the absence of a necessary history (Skinner, 1971).

⁵Many people travel long distances for both business and pleasure. They travel each year to far away conventions and meetings. Airline travel has nearly the highest consumption of petroleum per passenger mile of any form and it disperses pollutants directly into the upper atmosphere. Travel to conventions consumes prodigious amounts of fuel. It is ironic that conference participants travel long distances by jet to deliver or listen to presentations about “sustainability.”

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Music education is a field of study associated with the teaching and learning of music. It touches on all learning domains, including the psychomotor domain (the development of skills), the cognitive domain (the acquisition of knowledge), and, in particular and significant ways, the affective domain (the learner's willingness to receive, internalize, and share what is learned), including music appreciation and sensitivity. Music training from preschool through post-secondary education is common in most nations because involvement with music is considered a fundamental component of human culture and behavior. Cultures from around the world have different approaches to music education, largely due to the varying histories and politics. Studies show that teaching music from other cultures can help students perceive unfamiliar sounds more comfortably, and they also show that musical preference is related to the language spoken by the listener and the other sounds they are exposed to within their own culture.

During the 20th century, many distinctive approaches were developed or further refined for the teaching of music, some of which have had widespread impact. The Dalcroze method (eurhythmics) was developed in the early 20th century by Swiss musician and educator Émile Jaques-Dalcroze. The Kodály Method emphasizes the benefits of physical instruction and response to music. The Orff Schulwerk approach to music education leads students to develop their music abilities in a way that parallels the development of western music.

The Suzuki method creates the same environment for learning music that a person has for learning their native language. Gordon Music Learning Theory provides the music teacher with a method for teaching musicianship through audiation, Gordon's term for hearing music in the mind with understanding. Conversational Solfège immerses students in the musical literature of their own culture, in this case American. The Carabo-Cone Method involves using props, costumes, and toys for children to learn basic musical concepts of staff, note duration, and the piano keyboard. The concrete environment of the specially planned classroom allows the child to learn the fundamentals of music by exploring through touch.^[1]Popular music pedagogy is the systematic teaching and learning of rock music and other forms of popular music both inside and outside formal classroom settings. Some have suggested that certain musical activities can help to improve breath, body and voice control of a child.^[2]

The MMCP (Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project) aims to shape attitudes, helping students see music not as static content to be mastered, but as personal, current, and evolving.

• 2Instructional methodologies
  • 2.1Major international music education methods
  • 2.2Other notable methods
• 3History of music education in the United States
• 10Integration with other subjects

Overview[edit]

In primary schools in European countries, children often learn to play instruments such as keyboards or recorders, sing in small choirs, and learn about the elements of music and history of music. In countries such as India, the harmonium is used in schools, but instruments like keyboards and violin are also common. Students are normally taught basics of Indian Raga music. In primary and secondary schools, students may often have the opportunity to perform in some type of musical ensemble, such as a choir, orchestra, or school band: concert band, marching band, or jazz band. In some secondary schools, additional music classes may also be available. In junior high school or its equivalent, music usually continues to be a required part of the curriculum.^[3]

At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs receive academic credit for music courses such as music history, typically of Western art music, or music appreciation, which focuses on listening and learning about different musical styles. In addition, most North American and European universities offer music ensembles – such as choir, concert band, marching band, or orchestra – that are open to students from various fields of study. Most universities also offer degree programs in music education, certifying students as primary and secondary music educators. Advanced degrees such as the D.M.A. or the Ph.D can lead to university employment. These degrees are awarded upon completion of music theory, music history, technique classes, private instruction with a specific instrument, ensemble participation, and in depth observations of experienced educators. Music education departments in North American and European universities also support interdisciplinary research in such areas as music psychology, music education historiography, educational ethnomusicology, sociomusicology, and philosophy of education.

The study of western art music is increasingly common in music education outside of North America and Europe, including Asian nations such as South Korea, Japan, and China. At the same time, Western universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of outside the Western art music canon, including music of West Africa, of Indonesia (e.g. Gamelan music), Mexico (e.g., mariachi music), Zimbabwe (marimba music), as well as popular music.

Music education also takes place in individualized, lifelong learning, and in community contexts. Both amateur and professional musicians typically take music lessons, short private sessions with an individual teacher.

Instructional methodologies[edit]

While instructional strategies are determined by the music teacher and the music curriculum in his or her area, many teachers rely heavily on one of many instructional methodologies that emerged in recent generations and developed rapidly during the latter half of the 20th Century.

Major international music education methods[edit]

Dalcroze method[edit]

The Dalcroze method was developed in the early 20th century by Swiss musician and educator Émile Jaques-Dalcroze. The method is divided into three fundamental concepts − the use of solfège, improvisation, and eurhythmics. Sometimes referred to as 'rhythmic gymnastics,' eurhythmics teaches concepts of rhythm, structure, and musical expression using movement, and is the concept for which Dalcroze is best known. It focuses on allowing the student to gain physical awareness and experience of music through training that engages all of the senses, particularly kinesthetic. According to the Dalcroze method, music is the fundamental language of the human brain and therefore deeply connected to who we are. American proponents of the Dalcroze method include Ruth Alperson, Ann Farber, Herb Henke, Virginia Mead, Lisa Parker, Martha Sanchez, and Julia Schnebly-Black. Many active teachers of Dalcroze method were trained by Dr. Hilda Schuster who was one of the students of Dalcroze.

Kodály method[edit]

Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967) was a prominent Hungarian music educator and composer who stressed the benefits of physical instruction and response to music. Although not really an educational method, his teachings reside within a fun, educational framework built on a solid grasp of basic music theory and music notation in various verbal and written forms. Kodály's primary goal was to instill a lifelong love of music in his students and felt that it was the duty of the child's school to provide this vital element of education. Some of Kodály's trademark teaching methods include the use of solfège hand signs, musical shorthand notation (stick notation), and rhythm solmization (verbalization). Most countries have used their own folk music traditions to construct their own instruction sequence, but the United States primarily uses the Hungarian sequence. The work of Denise Bacon, Katinka S. Daniel, John Feierabend, Jean Sinor, Jill Trinka, and others brought Kodaly's ideas to the forefront of music education in the United States.

Orff Schulwerk[edit]

Carl Orff was a prominent German composer. Orff Schulwerk is considered an 'approach' to music education. It begins with a student's innate abilities to engage in rudimentary forms of music, using basic rhythms and melodies. Orff considers the whole body a percussive instrument and students are led to develop their music abilities in a way that parallels the development of western music. The approach fosters student self-discovery, encourages improvisation, and discourages adult pressures and mechanical drill. Carl Orff developed a special group of instruments, including modifications of the glockenspiel, xylophone, metallophone, drum, and other percussion instruments to accommodate the requirements of the Schulwerk courses. Experts in shaping an American-style Orff approach include Jane Frazee, Arvida Steen, and Judith Thomas.^[4]

Suzuki method[edit]

The Suzuki method was developed by Shinichi Suzuki in Japan shortly after World War II, and uses music education to enrich the lives and moral character of its students. The movement rests on the double premise that 'all children can be well educated' in music, and that learning to play music at a high level also involves learning certain character traits or virtues which make a person's soul more beautiful. The primary method for achieving this is centered around creating the same environment for learning music that a person has for learning their native language. This 'ideal' environment includes love, high-quality examples, praise, rote training and repetition, and a time-table set by the student's developmental readiness for learning a particular technique. While the Suzuki Method is quite popular internationally, within Japan its influence is less significant than the Yamaha Method, founded by Genichi Kawakami in association with the Yamaha Music Foundation.

Other notable methods[edit]

In addition to the four major international methods described above, other approaches have been influential. Lesser-known methods are described below:

Gordon's Music Learning Theory[edit]

Edwin Gordon's Music Learning Theory is based on an extensive body of research and field testing by Edwin E. Gordon and others in the larger field of Music Learning Theory. It provides music teachers with a comprehensive framework for teaching musicianship through audiation, Gordon's term for hearing music in the mind with understanding and comprehension when the sound is not physically present.^[5] The sequence of instructions is Discrimination Learning and Inference Learning. Discrimination Learning, the ability to determine whether two elements are the same or not the same using aural/oral, verbal association, partial synthesis, symbolic association, and composite synthesis. Inference Learning, students take an active role in their own education and learn to identify, create, and improvise unfamiliar patterns.^[6] The skills and content sequences within the Audiation theory help music teachers establish sequential curricular objectives in accord with their own teaching styles and beliefs.^[7] There also is a Learning Theory for Newborns and Young Children in which the Types and Stages of Preparatory Audiation are outlined.

World Music Pedagogy[edit]

The growth of cultural diversity within school-age populations prompted music educators from the 1960s onward to diversify the music curriculum, and to work with ethnomusicologists and artist-musicians to establish instructional practices rooted in musical traditions. 'World music pedagogy' was coined by Patricia Shehan Campbell to describe world music content and practice in elementary and secondary school music programs. Pioneers of the movement, especially Barbara Reeder Lundquist, William M. Anderson, and Will Schmid, influenced a second generation of music educators (including J. Bryan Burton, Mary Goetze, Ellen McCullough-Brabson, and Mary Shamrock) to design and deliver curricular models to music teachers of various levels and specializations. The pedagogy advocates the use of human resources, i.e., 'culture-bearers,' as well as deep and continued listening to archived resources such as those of Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.^[8]

Conversational Solfège[edit]

Influenced by both the Kodály method and Gordon's Music Learning Theory, Conversational Solfège was developed by Dr. John M. Feierabend, former chair of music education at the Hartt School, University of Hartford. The program begins by immersing students in the musical literature of their own culture, in this case American. Music is seen as separate from, and more fundamental than, notation. In twelve learning stages, students move from hearing and singing music to decoding and then creating music using spoken syllables and then standard written notation. Rather than implementing the Kodály method directly, this method follows Kodály's original instructions and builds on America's own folk songs instead of on Hungarian folk songs.

Carabo-Cone Method[edit]

This early-childhood approach, sometimes referred to as the Sensory-Motor Approach to Music, was developed by the violinist Madeleine Carabo-Cone. This approach involves using props, costumes, and toys for children to learn basic musical concepts of staff, note duration, and the piano keyboard. The concrete environment of the specially planned classroom allows the child to learn the fundamentals of music by exploring through touch.^[1]

Lehmann Decade

Popular Music Pedagogy[edit]

'Popular music pedagogy' — alternatively called rock music pedagogy, modern band, popular music education, or rock music education — is a recent development in music education consisting of the systematic teaching and learning of rock music and other forms of popular music both inside and outside formal classroom settings. Popular music pedagogy tends to emphasize group improvisation,^[9] and is more commonly associated with community music activities than fully institutionalized school music ensembles.^[10]

MMCP[edit]

The Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project was developed in 1965 as a response to declining student interest in school music. This creative approach aims to shape attitudes, helping students see music not as static content to be mastered, but as personal, current, and evolving. Rather than imparting factual knowledge, this method centers around the student, who learns through investigation, experimentation, and discovery. The teacher gives a group of students a specific problem to solve together and allows freedom to create, perform, improvise, conduct, research, and investigate different facets of music in a spiral curriculum. MMCP is viewed as the forerunner to projects in creative music composition and improvisation activities in schools.

^[11][12]

History of music education in the United States[edit]

18th century[edit]

After the preaching of Reverend Thomas Symmes, the first singing school was created in 1717 in Boston for the purposes of improving singing and music reading in the church. These singing schools gradually spread throughout the colonies. Music education continued to flourish with the creation of the Academy of Music in Boston. Reverend John Tufts published An Introduction to the Singing of Psalm Tunes Using Non-Traditional Notation which is regarded as the first music textbook in the colonies. Between 1700 and 1820, more than 375 tune books would be published by such authors as Samuel Holyoke, Francis Hopkinson, William Billings, and Oliver Holden.^[13]

Music began to spread as a curricular subject into other school districts. Soon after music expanded to all grade levels and the teaching of music reading was improved until the music curriculum grew to include several activities in addition to music reading. By the end of 1864 public school music had spread throughout the country.

19th century[edit]

In 1832, Lowell Mason and George Webb formed the Boston Academy of Music with the purposes of teaching singing and theory as well as methods of teaching music. Mason published his Manuel of Instruction in 1834 which was based upon the music education works of Pestalozzian System of Education founded by Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. This handbook gradually became used by many singing school teachers. From 1837–1838, the Boston School Committee allowed Lowell Mason to teach music in the Hawes School as a demonstration. This is regarded as the first time music education was introduced to public schools in the United States. In 1838 the Boston School Committee approved the inclusion of music in the curriculum and Lowell Mason became the first recognized supervisor of elementary music. In later years Luther Whiting Mason became the Supervisor of Music in Boston and spread music education into all levels of public education (grammar, primary, and high school). During the middle of the 19th century, Boston became the model to which many other cities across the United States included and shaped their public school music education programs.^[14] Music methodology for teachers as a course was first introduced in the Normal School in Potsdam. The concept of classroom teachers in a school that taught music under the direction of a music supervisor was the standard model for public school music education during this century. (See also: Music education in the United States) While women were discouraged from composing in the 19th century, 'later, it was accepted that women would have a role in music education, and they became involved in this field..to such a degree that women dominated music education during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century.'^[15]

Early 20th century[edit]

In the United States, teaching colleges with four-year degree programs developed from the Normal Schools and included music. Oberlin Conservatory first offered the Bachelor of Music Education degree. Osbourne G. McCarthy, an American music educator, introduced details for studying music for credit in Chelsea High School. Notable events in the history of music education in the early 20th century also include:

• Founding of the Music Supervisor's National Conference (changed to Music Educators National Conference in 1934, later MENC: The National Association for Music Education in 1998, and currently The National Association for Music Education – NAfME) in Keokuk, Iowa in 1907.
• Rise of the school band and orchestra movement leading to performance oriented school music programs.
• Growth in music methods publications.
• Frances Elliot Clark develops and promotes phonograph record libraries for school use.
• Carl Seashore and his Measures of Musical Talent music aptitude test starts testing people in music.

Middle 20th century to 21st century American Music Education[edit]

The following table illustrates some notable developments from this period:

Music course offerings and even entire degree programs in online music education developed in the first decade of the 21st century at various institutions, and the fields of world music pedagogy and popular music pedagogy have also seen notable expansion.

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, social aspects of teaching and learning music came to the fore. This emerged as praxial music education,^[19] critical theory,^[20] and feminist theory.^[21] Of importance are the colloquia and journals of the MayDay Group, 'an international think tank of music educators that aims to identify, critique, and change taken-for-granted patterns of professional activity, polemical approaches to method and philosophy, and educational politics and public pressures that threaten effective practice and critical communication in music education.'^[22] With a new focus on social aspects of music education, scholars have analyzed critical aspects such as music and race,^[23] gender,^[24] class,^[25] institutional belonging,^[26] and sustainability.^[27]

India[edit]

Institutional music education was started in colonial India by Rabindranath Tagore after he founded the Visva-Bharati University. At present, most universities have a faculty of music with some universities specially dedicated to fine arts such as Indira Kala Sangeet University, Swathi Thirunal College of Music or Rabindra Bharati University.Indian classical music is based on the Guru-Shishya parampara system. The teacher, known as Guru, transmit the musical knowledge to the student, or shyshya. This is still the main system used in India to transmit musical knowledge. Although European art music became popularized in schools throughout much of the world during the twentieth century (East Asia, Latin America, Oceania, Africa), India remains one of the few highly populated nations in which non-European indigenous music traditions have consistently received relatively greater emphasis. That said, there is certainly much western influence in the popular music associated with Bollywood film scores.

Java[edit]

The Indonesian island of Java is known for its rich musical culture, centered around gamelan music. The two oldest gamelan instrument sets, dating from the twelfth century, are housed in the kratons (palaces) in the cities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Gamelan music is and integral part of the Javanese culture: it is a part of religious ceremonies, weddings, funerals, palace activities, national holidays, and local community gatherings. In recent years, there has been an increasing market for gamelan associated tourism: several companies arrange visits for tourists wishing to participate in and learn gamelan.^[28]

Gamelan music has a distinct pedagogical approach. The term maguru panggul, translated means “teaching with the mallet” describes the master-apprentice approach that is used most often when teaching the music. The teacher demonstrates long passages of music at a time, without stopping to have the student demonstrate comprehension of the passage, as in a western music pedagogy. A teacher and student will frequently sit on opposite sides of a drum or mallet instrument, so that both can play it. This provides the teacher an easy way to demonstrate, and the student can study and mimic the teacher's actions. The teacher trains the kendang player, who is the leader of the ensemble. The teacher works one on one with them and repeats the parts as many times as necessary until the piece is rhythmically and stylistically accurate. The Kendang player is sometimes relied on to transmit the music to their fellow gamelan members.^[29]

Africa[edit]

The South African Department of Education and the ILAM Music Heritage Project SA teach African music using western musical framework. ILAM's Listen and Learn for students 11–14 is 'unique' in teaching curriculum requirements for western music using recordings of traditional African music.^[30]

From the time that Africa was colonized up to 1994, indigenous music and arts being taught in schools was a rare occurrence. The African National Congress (ANC) attempted to repair the neglect of indigenous knowledge and the overwhelming emphasis on written musical literacy in schools. It is not well known that the learning of indigenous music actually has a philosophy and teaching procedure that is different from western “formal” training. It involves the whole community because indigenous songs are about the history of its people. After the colonization of Africa, music became more centered on Christian beliefs and European folk songs, rather than the more improvised and fluid indigenous music. Before the major changes education went through from 1994 to 2004, during the first decade of the democratic government, teachers were trained as classroom teachers and told that they would have to incorporate music into other subject areas. The few colleges with teaching programs that included instrumental programs held a greater emphasis on music theory, history of western music, western music notation, and less on making music. Up until 1999, most college syllabi did not include training in indigenous South African Music.^[31]

In African cultures music is seen as a community experience and is used for social and religious occasions. As soon as children show some sign of being able to handle music or a musical instrument they are allowed to participate with the adults of the community in musical events. Traditional songs are more important to many people because they are stories about the histories of the indigenous peoples.^[32]

South America[edit]

Among the Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas, music was used in ceremonies and rituals to teach the history of their civilizations and was also used for worship. The Aztec people were mainly educated by their priests. Music remained an important way to teach religion and history and was taught by priests for many centuries. When Spain and Portugal colonized parts of South America, music started to be influenced by European ideas and qualities. Several priests of European descent, such as Antonio Sepp, taught European systems of music notation and theory based on their knowledge of playing instruments throughout the 1700-1800s. Since music was taught to the general public by rote, very few knew how to read music other than those who played instruments until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The development of music in South America mainly followed that of European development. Choirs were formed to sing masses, chants, psalms, but secular music also became more prevalent in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and beyond.^[33]

Music education in Latin America today has large emphasis on folk music, masses, and orchestral music. Many classrooms teach their choirs to sing in their native language as well as in English. Several Latin American Schools, specifically in Puerto Rico and Haiti, believe music to be an important subject and are working on expanding their programs. Outside of school, many communities form their own musical groups and organizations. Community performances are very popular with the local audiences. There are a few well-known Latin American choral groups, such as 'El Coro de Madrigalistas' from Mexico. This famous choral group tours around Mexico, showing students around the country what a professional choral ensemble sounds like.^[34]

Cross-Cultural Music Education[edit]

The music, languages, and sounds we are exposed to within our own cultures determine our tastes in music and affect the way we perceive the music of other cultures. Many studies have shown distinct differences in the preferences and abilities of musicians from around the world. One study attempted to view the distinctions between the musical preferences of English and Japanese speakers, providing both groups of people with the same series of tones and rhythms. The same type of study was done for English and French speakers. Both studies suggested that the language spoken by the listener determined which groupings of tones and rhythms were more appealing, based on the inflections and natural rhythm groupings of their language.^[35]

Another study had Europeans and Africans try to tap along with certain rhythms. European rhythms are regular and built on simple ratios, while African rhythms are typically based on irregular ratios. While both groups of people could perform the rhythms with European qualities, the European group struggled with the African rhythms. This has to do with the ubiquity of complex polyrhythm in African culture and their familiarity with this type of sound.^[35] Crock pot bbq pit instruction manual.

While each culture has its own musical qualities and appeals, incorporating cross-cultural curricula in our music classrooms can help teach students how to better perceive music from other cultures. Studies show that learning to sing folk songs or popular music of other cultures is an effective way to understand a culture as opposed to merely learning about it. If music classrooms discuss the musical qualities and incorporate styles from other cultures, such as the Brazilian roots of the Bossa Nova, the Afro-Cuban clave, and African drumming, it will expose students to new sounds and teach them how to compare their cultures’ music to the different music and start to make them more comfortable with exploring sounds.^[36]

Standards and assessment[edit]

Achievement standards are curricular statements used to guide educators in determining objectives for their teaching. Use of standards became a common practice in many nations during the 20th century. For much of its existence, the curriculum for music education in the United States was determined locally or by individual teachers. In recent decades there has been a significant move toward adoption of regional and/or national standards. MENC: The National Association for Music Education, created nine voluntary content standards, called the National Standards for Music Education.^[3] These standards call for:

1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.
2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.
3. Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments.
4. Composing and arranging music within specified guidelines.
5. Reading and notating music.
6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music.
7. Evaluating music and music performances.
8. Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside the arts.
9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture.

Many states and school districts have adopted their own standards for music education.

Integration with other subjects[edit]

Some schools and organizations promote integration of arts classes, such as music, with other subjects, such as math, science, or English, believing that integrating the different curricula will help each subject to build off of one another, enhancing the overall quality of education.

One example is the Kennedy Center's 'Changing Education Through the Arts' program. CETA defines arts integration as finding a natural connection(s) between one or more art forms (dance, drama/theater, music, visual arts, storytelling, puppetry, and/or creative writing) and one or more other curricular areas (science, social studies, English language arts, mathematics, and others) in order to teach and assess objectives in both the art form and the other subject area. This allows a simultaneous focus on creating, performing, and/or responding to the arts while still addressing content in other subject areas.^[37]

The European Union Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013 has funded three projects that use music to support language learning. Lullabies of Europe (for pre-school and early learners),^[38] FolkDC (for primary),^[39] and the recent PopuLLar (for secondary).^[40] In addition, the ARTinED project is also using music for all subject areas.^[41]

Significance[edit]

A number of researchers and music education advocates have argued that studying music enhances academic achievement,^[42] such as William Earhart, former president of the Music Educators National Conference, who claimed that 'Music enhances knowledge in the areas of mathematics, science, geography, history, foreign language, physical education, and vocational training.'^[43] Researchers at the University of Wisconsin suggested that students with piano or keyboard experience performed 34% higher on tests that measure spatial-temporal lobe activity, which is the part of the brain that is used when doing mathematics, science, and engineering.^[44]

An experiment by Wanda T. Wallace setting text to melody suggested that some music may aid in text recall.^[45] She created a three verse song with a non-repetitive melody; each verse with different music. A second experiment created a three verse song with a repetitive melody; each verse had exactly the same music. A third experiment studied text recall without music. She found the repetitive music produced the highest amount of text recall, suggesting music can serve as a mnemonic device.^[45]

Smith (1985) studied background music with word lists. One experiment involved memorizing a word list with background music; participants recalled the words 48 hours later. Another experiment involved memorizing a word list with no background music; participants also recalled the words 48 hours later. Participants who memorized word lists with background music recalled more words demonstrating music provides contextual cues.^[46]

Citing studies that support music education's involvement in intellectual development and academic achievement, the United States Congress passed a resolution declaring that: 'Music education enhances intellectual development and enriches the academic environment for children of all ages; and Music educators greatly contribute to the artistic, intellectual and social development of American children and play a key role in helping children to succeed in school.'^[47]

Bobbett (1990) suggests that most public school music programs have not changed since their inception at the turn of the last century. '…the educational climate is not conducive to their continuance as historically conceived and the social needs and habits of people require a completely different kind of band program.'^[48] A 2011 study conducted by Kathleen M. Kerstetter for the Journal of Band Research found that increased non-musical graduation requirements, block scheduling, increased number of non-traditional programs such as magnet schools, and the testing emphases created by the No Child Left Behind Act are only some of the concerns facing music educators. Both teachers and students are under increased time restrictions'^[49]

Dr. Patricia Powers states, 'It is not unusual to see program cuts in the area of music and arts when economic issues surface. It is indeed unfortunate to lose support in this area especially since music and the art programs contribute to society in many positive ways.' ^[43] Comprehensive music education programs average $187 per pupil, according to a 2011 study funded by the national Association of Music Merchants (NAMM) Foundation^[50] The Texas Commission on Drugs and Alcohol Abuse Report noted that students who participated in band or orchestra reported the lowest lifetime and current use of all substances including alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs.^[51]

Non-musical benefits[edit]

Studies have shown that music education can be used to enhance cognitive achievement in students. In the United States an estimated 30% of students struggle with reading, while 17% are reported as having a specific learning disability linked to reading.^[52] Using intensive music curriculum as an intervention paired alongside regular classroom activities, research shows that students involved with the music curriculum show increases in reading comprehension, word knowledge, vocabulary recall, and word decoding.^[53] When a student is singing a melody with text, they are using multiple areas of their brain to multitask. Music effects language development, increases IQ, spatial-temporal skills, and improves test scores. Music education has also shown to improve the skills of dyslexic children in similar areas as mentioned earlier by focusing on visual auditory and fine motor skills as strategies to combat their disability.^[54] Since research in this area is sparse, we cannot convincingly conclude these findings to be true, however the results from research done do show a positive impact on both students with learning difficulties and those who are not diagnosed. Further research will need to be done, but the positive engaging way of bringing music into the classroom cannot be forgotten, and the students generally show a positive reaction to this form of instruction.^[55]

Music education has also been noted to have the ability to increase someones overall IQ, especially in children during peak development years.^[56] Spacial ability, verbal memory, reading and mathematic ability are seen to be increased alongside music education (primarily through the learning of an instrument).^[56] Researchers also note that a correlation between general attendance and IQ increases is evident, and due to students involvement in music education, general attendance rates increase along with their IQ.

Fine motor skills, social behaviours, and emotional well being can also be increased through music and music education. The learning of an instrument increases fine motor skills in students with physical disabilities. Emotional well being can be increased as students find meaning in songs and connect them to their everyday life.^[57] Through social interactions of playing in groups like jazz and concert bands, students learn to socialize and this can be linked to emotional and mental well being.

Music advocacy[edit]

In some communities – and even entire national education systems – music is provided little support as an academic subject area, and music teachers feel that they must actively seek greater public endorsement for music education as a legitimate subject of study. This perceived need to change public opinion has resulted in the development of a variety of approaches commonly called 'music advocacy'. Music advocacy comes in many forms, some of which are based upon legitimate scholarly arguments and scientific findings, while other examples controversially rely on emotion, anecdotes, or unconvincing data.

Recent high-profile music advocacy projects include the 'Mozart Effect', the National Anthem Project, and the movement in World Music Pedagogy (also known as Cultural Diversity in Music Education) which seeks out means of equitable pedagogy across students regardless of their race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic circumstance. The Mozart effect is particularly controversial as while the initial study suggested listening to Mozart positively impacts spatial-temporal reasoning, later studies either failed to replicate the results,^[58][59] suggested no effect on IQ or spatial ability,^[60] or suggested the music of Mozart could be substituted for any music children enjoy in a term called 'enjoyment arousal.'^[61] Another study suggested that even if listening to Mozart may temporarily enhance a student's spatial-temporal abilities, learning to play an instrument is much more likely to improve student performance and achievement.^[62] Educators similarly criticized the National Anthem Project not only for promoting the educational use of music as a tool for non-musical goals, but also for its links to nationalism and militarism.^[63]

Contemporary music scholars assert that effective music advocacy uses empirically sound arguments that transcend political motivations and personal agendas. Music education philosophers such as Bennett Reimer, Estelle Jorgensen, David J. Elliott, John Paynter, and Keith Swanwick support this view, yet many music teachers and music organizations and schools do not apply this line of reasoning into their music advocacy arguments. Researchers such as Ellen Winner conclude that arts advocates have made bogus claims to the detriment of defending the study of music,^[64] her research debunking claims that music education improves math, for example.^[65] Researchers Glenn Schellenberg and Eugenia Costa-Giomi also criticize advocates incorrectly associating correlation with causation, Giomi pointing out that while there is a 'strong relationship between music participation and academic achievement, the causal nature of the relationship is questionable.'^[65][66] Philosophers David Elliott and Marissa Silverman suggest that more effective advocacy involves shying away from 'dumbing down' values and aims through slogans and misleading data, energy being better focused into engaging potential supporters in active music-making and musical-affective experiences,^[67] these actions recognizing that music and music-making are inherent to human culture and behavior, distinguishing humans from other species.^[68]

Role of women[edit]

While music critics argued in the 1880s that '..women [composers] lacked the innate creativity to compose good music' due to 'biological predisposition',^[15] later, it was accepted that women would have a role in music education, and they became involved in this field '..to such a degree that women dominated music education during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century.'^[15]'Traditional accounts of the history of music education [in the US] have often neglected the contributions of women, because these texts have emphasized bands and the top leaders in hierarchical music organizations.' ^[69] When looking beyond these bandleaders and top leaders, women had many music education roles in the '..home, community, churches, public schools, and teacher-training institutions' and '..as writers, patrons, and through their volunteer work in organizations.' ^[69]

Despite the limitations imposed on women's roles in music education in the 19th century, women were accepted as kindergarten teachers, because this was deemed to be a 'private sphere'. Women also taught music privately, in girl's schools, Sunday schools, and they trained musicians in school music programs. By the turn of the 20th century, women began to be employed as music supervisors in elementary schools, teachers in normal schools and professors of music in universities. Women also became more active in professional organizations in music education, and women presented papers at conferences. A woman, Frances Clarke (1860-1958) founded the Music Supervisors National Conference in 1907. While a small number of women served as President of the Music Supervisors National Conference (and the following renamed versions of the organization over the next century) in the early 20th century, there were only two female Presidents between 1952 and 1992, which '[p]ossibly reflects discrimination.'

After 1990, however, leadership roles for women in the organization opened up. From 1990 to 2010, there were five female Presidents of this organization.^[70] Women music educators 'outnumber men two-to-one' in teaching general music, choir, private lessons, and keyboard instruction .^[70] More men tend to be hired as for band education, administration and jazz jobs, and more men work in colleges and universities.^[70] According to Dr. Sandra Wieland Howe, there is still a 'glass ceiling' for women in music education careers, as there is 'stigma' associated with women in leadership positions and 'men outnumber women as administrators.'^[70]

Notable music educators[edit]

Professional organizations[edit]

• International Association for Jazz Education^[71]
• International Society for Philosophy of Music Education^[72]
• National Association for Music Education (US-based: also called NafME, and previously MENC)

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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2. ^Oaklander, Violet. (2006) Hidden Treasure : A Map to the Child's Inner Self. London, Karnac Books.
3. ^Randel, D. (Ed.) (1986). Education in the United States. In The New Harvard Dictionary of Music (pp. 276–278). London/Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
4. ^'Orff Approach'. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Doreen Hall, Keith Bissell, Emily-Jane Orford. 02/07/2006
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17. ^National Standards for Music Education
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Bibliography[edit]

• Anderson, William M. and Patricia Shehan Campbell, eds. Multicultural Perspectives in Music Education. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference, 1989.
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• Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. 'Didaktik of Music: A German Concept and its Comparison to American Music Pedagogy.' International Journal of Music Education (Practice) 22 No. 3 (2004): 277-286.
• Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. Every Child for Music: Musikpädagogik und Musikunterricht in den USA. Musikwissenschaft/Musikpädagogik in der Blauen Eule, no. 74. Essen, Germany: Verlag Die Blaue Eule, 2006. ISBN3-89924-169-X.
• Machover, Tod, 'My Cello' in Turkle, Sherry (editor), Evocative objects : things we think with, Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press, 2007. ISBN978-0-262-20168-1
• Pete Moser and George McKay, eds. (2005) Community Music: A Handbook. Russell House Publishing. ISBN1-903855-70-5.
• National Standards for Arts Education. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference (MENC), 1994. ISBN1-56545-036-1.
• Neurological Research, Vol. 19, February 1997.
• Ratey, John J., MD. A User's Guide to the Brain. New York: Pantheon Books, 2001.
• Rauscher, F.H., et al. 'Music and Spatial Task Performance: A Causal Relationship,' University of California, Irvine, 1994.
• Seashore, Carl, 'The Measurement of Musical Talent', New York, G. Schirmer, 1915
• Seashore, Carl, 'The Psychology of Musical Talent', Boston, New York [etc.] Silver, Burdett and Company, 1919
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Further reading[edit]

• Barrett, Margaret, 2010. A Cultural Psychology of Music Education. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. 'Piano Improvisation Develops Musicianship.' Orff-Echo XXXVII No. 1 (2004): 11-14.
• Lundquist, Barbara R.; Sims, Winston T. (Autumn 1996). 'African-American Music Education: Reflections on an Experience'. Black Music Research Journal. 16 (2): 311–336. doi:10.2307/779334. ISSN0276-3605. JSTOR779334.
• McPherson, Gary (2006). The Child as Musician. New York: Oxford University Press.
• McPherson, Gary and Graham Welch (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Research in Music Education. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Mark, Michael L.; Gary, Charles L. (2007). A history of American music education (3 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Education. ISBN978-1-57886-523-9.
• Schafer, R. Murray (1965). The Composer in the Classroom. Toronto: B.M.I. Canada. 37 p.
• Serenko, A. (2011). Student satisfaction with Canadian music programs: The application of the American Customer Satisfaction Model in higher education. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 36(3): 281-299.
• Woodall, Laura and Brenda Ziembroski, (2002). Promoting Literacy Through Music.
• Yarbrough, Cornelia (Winter 1984). 'A Content Analysis of the 'Journal of Research in Music Education', 1953-1983'. Journal of Research in Music Education. 32 (4): 213–222. doi:10.2307/3344920. ISSN0022-4294. JSTOR3344920.